READING PASSAGE 2

Read the text and answer questions 14-26.

SAVING THE BITTERN

Paragraph A

The bittern, a British waterbird, does not have a good record as far as survival is concerned. By 1886, habitat destruction and other pressures had pushed it close to extinction. Fortunately, it recovered a few decades later, and in 1950 the numbers of nature male bitterns rose to a peak of about 70. By the 1980s, however, it was clear that the bird was in trouble again. The bittern needs extensive wet reedbeds to survive, and long periods of drainage, pollution and lack of management had destroyed most of its habitat. By 1997, it again faced imminent extinction. To prevent this, the British government set up a plan for the bittern, aiming to establish a population of 50 males by 2010. However, this target was reached six years early, a rate of recovery faster than anyone had dared hope for. We at the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) now claim the bittern as one of Britain’s greatest wildlife success stories, since figures reveal that the number of these rare birds has increased fivefold in just seven years.

Paragraph B

Bitterns have feathers that help them to conceal themselves and a shy nature; they usually remain hidden within the cover of reedbed vegetation. Our first challenge was to develop standard methods to monitor their numbers. The booming call of the male bittern is its most distinctive of feature during the breeding season, and we developed a method to count them using the sound patterns unique to each individual. This not only allowed us to be much more certain of the number of booming males in the UK, but also enabled us to estimate local survival of males from one year to the next.

Paragraph C

Our first direct understanding of what breeding bitterns require in their ideal habitat came from comparisons of reedbed sits that had lost their male birds with those that retained them. This research showed that bitterns had been retained in reedbeds where the natural process of drying out had been slowed through management. Based on this work, broad recommendations on how to manage and rehabilitate rehabilitate reedbeds for bitterns were made, and funding was provided through a European Union (EU) wildlife fund to manage 13 sites within the core breeding range.

Paragraph D

To refine these recommendations and provide fine-scale, quantitative habitat prescriptions on the bitterns’ preferred feeding habitat, we started radio-tracking male bitterns on the RSPB’s Minsmere and Leighton Moss reserves. This showed clear preferences for feeding in the wetter reedbed areas, particularly within reedbed next to larger open pools. The average home range sizes of the male bitterns we followed (about 20 hectares) provided a good indication of the area of reedbed necessary when managing or creating habitat for this species. Female bitterns undertake all the incubation and care of the young, so it was important to understand their requirements as well. Over the course of your research, we located 87 bittern nests and found that female bitterns preferred to nest in areas of continuous vegetation, well into the reedbed, but where was still present during the driest part of the breeding season.

Paragraph E

The success of the habitat prescriptions developed from this research has been spectacular. For instance, at Minsmere, male bittern numbers gradually increased from one to ten following reedbed lowering, a management technique designed to halt the drying out process. After a low point of 11 mature males in 1997, bittern numbers in Britain responded to all the habitat management work and started to increase for the first time since 1950.

Paragraph F

The final phase of research involved understanding the diet, survival and dispersal of bittern chicks. To do this we fitted small radio tags to young bittern chicks in the nest, to determine their fate through to fledging, when they begin to fly, and beyond. Many chicks did not survive to this stage, and starvation was found to be the most likely reason for their demise. The fish prey fed to chicks was mainly those species penetrating into the reed edge. So, an important element of recent studies has been development of recommendations on habitat and water conditions to promote native fish populations. Once independent, radiotagged young bitterns were found to seek out new sites during their first winter, a proportion of these would remain on new sites to breed if the conditions were suitable. A second EU-funded project aims to provide these suitable sites in new areas. A network of 19 sites developed through this partnership project will secure a more sustainable UK bittern population with successful breeding outside of the core area, less vulnerable to chance events and sea level rise.

Paragraph G

By 2004, the number of booming male bitterns in the UK had increased to 55. Almost all of the increase occurred on those sites undertaking management based on advice derived from our research. What rescuing the bittern, the work has helped a range of other spectacular wetland species such as otters. Although science has been at the core of the bittern story, success has only been achieved through the trust, hard work and dedication of all the managers, owners and wardens of sites that have implemented, in some cases very drastic, management to secure the future of this wetland species in the UK.

READING PASSAGE 3

Read the text and answer questions 27-40.

THE PLACEBO EFFECT

With the right encouragement, your mind can convince the body to heal itself.

What is the mysterious force that can do this?

Want to devise a new form of alternative medical treatment? No problem. Here’s the recipe. As a practitioner, be warm, sympathetic, reassuring and enthusiastic. Your treatment should involve physical contact, and each session with your patients should take at least half an hour. Encourage your patients to take an active part in their treatment and understand how their disorders relate to the rest of their lives. Tell them that their own bodies possess the true power to heal. Get them to pay you well. Describe your treatment in familiar words, but embroidered with a hint of mysticism: energy fields, energy flows, energy blocks, meridians, forces, auras, rhythms and the like. Refer to the knowledge of an early age: wisdom carelessly swept aside by the rise of blind mechanistric science. Oh, come off it, you're saying. Something like that couldn’t possibly work, could it?

Well yes, it could and often well enough to earn you a living. And a very good living if you are sufficiently convincing or, better still, really believe in your therapy. Many illnesses get better on their own, so if you are lucky and administer your treatment at just the right time you'll get the credit. But that’s only part of it. Some of the improvement really would be down to you. Not necessarily because you’d recommended ginseng rather than chamomile tea о used this crystal as opposed to that pressure point. Nothing so specific. Your healing power would be the outcome of a paradoxical force that conventional medicine recognizes but remains oddly ambivalent about: the placebo effect.

Placebos are treatments that have no direct effect on the body, yet still work because the patient has faith in their power to heal. Most often the term refers to a dummy pill, but it applies just as much to any device or procedure, from a sticking plaster to a crystal. The existence of the placebo effect implies that even a complete fraud could make a difference to someone’s health, which is why some practitioners of alternative medicine are sensitive about any mention of the subject. In fact, the placebo is a powerful part of all medical care, orthodox or otherwise, though its role is often neglected and misunderstood.

At one level, it should come as no surprise that our state of mind can influence our physiology: anger opens the superficial blood vessels of the face; sadness pumps the tear glands. But exactly how placebos work their medical magic is still largely unknown. Most of the scant research to date has focused on the control of pain, because it’s one of the commonest complaints and lend itself to experimental study. Here, attention has turned to the endorphins, natural substances produced in the brain that are known to help control pain. Any of the neurochemicals involved in transmitting pain impulses or modulating them might also be involved in generating the placebo response; says Don Price, an oral surgeon at the University of Florida.

That case has been strengthened by the recent work of Fabrizio Benedetti of the University of Turin, who showed that the placebo effect can be abolished by a drug, naloxone, which blocks the effects of endorphins. Benedetti induced pain in pressure cuff on the forearm. He did this several times a day for several days, using morphine each time to control the pain. On the final day, without saying anything, he replaced the morphine with a saline solution. This still relieved the subjects' pain: a placebo effect. But when he added naloxone to the saline, and blocked the endorphins, the pain relief disappeared. Here was direct proof that the relief of pain by a placebo is carried out, at least in part, by these natural opiates.

Though scientists don't know exactly how placebos work, they have accumulated a fair bit of knowledge about how to trigger the effect. A London rheumatologist found, for example, that red dummy capsules made more effective painkillers than blue, green or yellow ones. Research on American students revealed that blue pills make better tranquiliser than pink, a colour more suitable for stimulants. Even branding can make a difference: if Aspro or Tylenol are what you like to take for a headache, their chemically identical generic equivalents may be less effective.

It matters too how the treatment is delivered. Decades ago, when the major tranquilliser chlorpromazine was being introduced, a doctor in Kansas categorized his colleague according to whether they were keen on it, openly skeptical of its benefits, or took a let's try and see attitude. His conclusion: the more enthusiastic the doctor, the better the drug performed. A recent survey by Ernst on doctor’s bedside manners turned up one consistent finding: physicians who adopt a warm, friendly, reassuring manner are more effective than those whose consultations are formal and do not offer reassurance.

Warm, friendly and I reassuring are precisely what alternative treatment is all about, of course. Many of the ingredients of that opening recipe - the physical contact, the generous swaths of time, the strong hints of supernormal healing power - are just the kind of thing likely to impress patients. It's hardly surprising then, that complementary practitioners are generally best at moblishing, the placebo effect, says Arthur Kleinman, professor of social anthropology at Harvard University.